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The Tiwanaku ((スペイン語:Tiahuanaco) or ) empire is a Pre-Columbian polity based in western Bolivia, South America that extended into present-day Peru and Chile from AD 300 to 1000. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important civilizations prior to the Inca Empire; it was the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south-eastern shore of Lake Titicaca in Tiwanaku Municipality, Ingavi Province, La Paz Department, about 72 km (45 mi) west of La Paz. == Cultural development == The area around Tiwanaku may have been inhabited as early as 1500 BC as a small agricultural village.〔.〕 Around AD 400 a state in the Titicaca basin began to develop and an urban capital was built at Tiwanaku. Tiwanaku's location between the lake and dry highlands provided key resources of fish, wild birds, plants, and herding grounds for camelidae, particularly llamas.〔, 424 pp.〕 The Titicaca Basin is the most productive environment in the area, with predictable and abundant rainfall. The Tiwanaku culture developed expanded farming. To the east, the Altiplano is an area of very dry arid land.〔 The Tiwanaku developed a distinctive farming technique known as "flooded-raised field" agriculture (''suka qullu'') to deal with the high-altitude Titicaca Basin Such fields were used widely in regional agriculture, together with irrigated fields, pasture, terraced fields and artificial ponds. Artificially raised planting mounds are separated by shallow canals filled with water. The canals supply moisture for growing crops, but they also absorb heat from solar radiation during the day. This heat is gradually emitted during the bitterly cold nights and provide thermal insulation against the endemic frost in the region. Traces of similar landscape management have been found in the Llanos de Moxos region (Amazonian flood plains of the Moxos).〔.〕 Over time, the canals also were used to farm edible fish. The resulting canal sludge was dredged for fertilizer. The fields grew to cover nearly the entire surface of the lake and although they were not uniform in size or shape, all had the same primary function.〔 Though labor-intensive, a ''suka qullu'' produces impressive yields. While traditional agriculture in the region typically yields 2.4 metric tons of potatoes per hectare, and modern agriculture (with artificial fertilizers and pesticides) yields about 14.5 metric tons per hectare, ''suka qullu'' agriculture yields an average of 21 tons per hectare.〔 Modern agricultural researchers have re-introduced the technique of ''suka qullu''. Significantly, the experimental suka qullu fields recreated in the 1980s by University of Chicago´s Alan Kolata and Oswaldo Rivera suffered only a 10% decrease in production following a 1988 freeze that killed 70-90% of the rest of the region's production.〔Kolata, Alan L. ''Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara,'' Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.〕 Development by the Tiwanaku of this kind of protection against killing frosts in an agrarian civilization was invaluable to their growth.〔 As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry and textiles. Like the later Incas, the Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite redistribution.〔Smith, Michael E. (2004), "The Archaeology of Ancient Economies," ''Annu. Rev. Anthrop.'' 33: 73-102.〕 That is, the elites of the empire controlled essentially all economic output, but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchichal stratification within the empire.〔Bahn, Paul G. ''Lost Cities''. New York: Welcome Rain, 1999.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Tiwanaku empire」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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